The Great Stain Read online

  But what did the Africans themselves have to say about their own country and people? Having no written language, very few were able to record their opinions and experiences, but an outstanding exception was the eighteenth-century Ibo, sometimes called Gustavus Vassa but more generally known as Olaudah Equiano. After a lifetime of many adventures, some of which will appear later, Equiano settled down in England where, in 1789, he wrote the story of his life, which had begun in the rich and powerful kingdom of Benin.

  “This kingdom is divided into many provinces or districts, in one of the most remote and fertile of which I was born, in the year 1745, situated in a charming fruitful vale, named Essaka. The distance of this province from the capital of Benin and the sea coast must be very considerable, for I had never heard of white men or Europeans, nor of the sea; and our subjection to the king of Benin was little more than nominal.

  “Our manner of living is entirely plain; for as yet the natives are unacquainted with those refinements in cookery which debauch the taste; bullocks, goats, and poultry supply the greatest part of their food. These constitute likewise the principal wealth of the country, and the chief articles of its commerce. The flesh is usually stewed in a pan; to make it savory we sometimes use pepper, and other spices, and we have salt made of wood ashes. Our vegetables are mostly plantains, eadas, yams, beans, and Indian corn. The head of the family usually eats alone; his wives and slaves have also their separate tables. Before we taste food we always wash our hands; indeed, our cleanliness on all occasions is extreme, but on this it is an indispensable ceremony. After washing, libation is made by pouring out a small portion of the drink on the floor, and tossing a small quantity of the food in a certain place, for the spirits of departed relations, which the natives suppose to preside over their conduct and guard them from evil.

  “They are totally unacquainted with strong or spirituous liquors; and their principal beverage is palm wine. This is got from a tree of that name, by tapping it at the top and fastening a large gourd to it; and sometimes one tree will yield three or four gallons in a night. When just drawn it is of a most delicious sweetness; but in a few days it acquires a tartish and more spirituous flavor, though I never saw anyone intoxicated by it. The same tree also produces nuts and oil. Our principal luxury is in perfumes: one sort of these is an odoriferous wood of delicious fragrance, the other a kind of earth, a small portion of which thrown into the fire diffuses a most powerful odor. We beat this wood into powder, and mix it with palm oil, with which both men and women perfume themselves.

  “In our buildings we study convenience rather than ornament. Each master of a family has a large square piece of ground, surrounded with a moat or fence, or enclosed with a wall made of red earth tempered, which, when dry, is as hard as brick. Within this, are his houses to accommodate his family and slaves, which, if numerous, frequently present the appearance of a village. In the middle, stands the principal building, appropriated to the sole use of the master and consisting of two apartments; in one of which he sits in the day with his family, the other is left apart for the reception of his friends. He has besides these a distinct apartment in which he sleeps, together with his male children. On each side are the apartments of his wives, who have also their separate day and night houses. The habitations of the slaves and their families are distributed throughout the rest of the enclosure. These houses never exceed one story in height; they are always built of wood, or stakes driven into the ground, crossed with wattles, and neatly plastered within and without. The roof is thatched with reeds. Our day houses are left open at the sides; but those in which we sleep are always covered, and plastered in the inside with a composition mixed with cow-dung, to keep off the different insects which annoy us during the night.

  “As we live in a country where nature is prodigal of her favors, our wants are few and easily supplied. Of course, we have few manufactures. They consist for the most part of calicoes, earthenware, ornaments, and instruments of war and husbandry … We have also markets, at which I have been frequently with my mother. These are sometimes visited by stout mahogany-colored men from the southwest of us: we call them Oye Eboe, which term signifies red men living at a distance. They generally bring us fire-arms, gun-powder, hats, beads, and dried fish. The last we esteemed a great rarity, as our waters were only brooks and springs. These articles they barter with us for odoriferous woods and earth, and our salt of wood ashes. They always carry slaves through our land; but the strictest account is exacted of their manner of procuring them before they are suffered to pass. Sometimes, indeed, we sold slaves to them, but they were only prisoners of war, or such among us as had been convicted of kidnapping, or adultery, and some other crimes which we esteemed heinous. This practice of kidnapping induces me to think that, notwithstanding all our strictness, their principal business among us was to trepan our people. I remember too, they carried great sacks along with them, which not long after I had an opportunity of fatally seeing applied to that infamous purpose.

  “Our tillage is exercised in a large plain or common, some hour’s walk from our dwellings, and all the neighbors resort thither in a body. They use no beasts of husbandry; and their only instruments are hoes, axes, shovels, and beaks, or pointed iron, to dig with. Sometimes we are visited by locusts, which come in large clouds, so as to darken the air and destroy our harvest. This, however, happens rarely, but when it does, a famine is produced by it. I remember an instance or two wherein this happened. This common is often the theatre of war; and therefore when our people go out to till their land, they not only go in a body, but generally take their arms with them for fear of a surprise; and when they apprehend an invasion, they guard the avenues to their dwellings by driving sticks into the ground, which are so sharp at one end as to pierce the foot, and are generally dipt in poison. From what I can recollect of these battles, they appear to have been irruptions of one little state or district on the other, to obtain prisoners or booty. Perhaps they were incited to this by those traders who brought the European goods I mentioned amongst us. Such a mode of obtaining slaves in Africa is common; and I believe more are procured this way, and by kidnapping, than any other.

  “We have fire-arms, bows and arrows, broad two-edged swords and javelins; we have shields also which cover a man from head to foot. All are taught the use of these weapons; even our women are warriors, and march boldly out to fight along with the men. Our whole district is a kind of militia: on a certain signal given, such as the firing of a gun at night, they all rise in arms and rush upon their enemy … When our people march to the field a red flag or banner is borne before them.

  “I was once a witness to a battle in our common. We had been all at work in it one day as usual, when our people were suddenly attacked. I climbed a tree at some distance, from which I beheld the fight. There were many women as well as men on both sides; among others my mother was there, and armed with a broad sword. After fighting for a considerable time with great fury, and many had been killed, our people obtained the victory, and took their enemy’s Chief a prisoner. He was carried off in great triumph, and, though he offered a large ransom for his life, he was put to death. A virgin of note among our enemies had been slain in the battle, and her arm was exposed in our market-place, where our trophies were always exhibited. The spoils were divided according to the merit of the warriors. Those prisoners which were not sold or redeemed, we kept as slaves; but how different was their condition from that of the slaves in the West Indies! With us, they do no more work than other members of the community, even their master; their food, clothing, and lodging were nearly the same as theirs (except that they were not permitted to eat with those who were free-born); and there was scarce any other difference between them, than a superior degree of importance which the head of a family possesses in our state, and that authority which, as such, he exercises over every part of his household. Some of these slaves even have slaves under them as their own property, and for their own use.

  “As to religio
n, the natives believe that there is one Creator of all things, and that he lives in the sun, and is girted round with a belt; that he may never eat or drink, but, according to some, he smokes a pipe, which is our own favorite luxury. They believe he governs events, especially our deaths or captivity; but, as for the doctrine of eternity, I do not remember to have ever heard of it; some, however, believe in the transmigration of souls in a certain degree. Those spirits which were not transmigrated, such as their dear friends or relations, they believe always attend them, and guard them from the bad spirits or their foes. For this reason they always, before eating, as I have observed, put some small portion of the meat, and pour some of their drink, on the ground for them; and they often make oblations of the blood of beasts or fowls at their graves.

  “We practised circumcision like the Jews, and made offerings and feasts on that occasion, in the same manner as they did. Like them also, our children were named from some event, some circumstance, or fancied foreboding, at the time of their birth. I was named Olaudah, which in our language signifies vicissitude, or fortunate; also, one favored, and having a loud voice and well spoken.

  “My father, besides many slaves, had a numerous family, of which seven lived to grow up, including myself and sister, who was the only daughter. As I was the youngest of the sons, I became, of course, the greatest favorite with my mother, and was always with her; and she used to take particular pains to form my mind. I was trained up from my earliest years in the art of war: my daily exercise was shooting and throwing javelins, and my mother adorned me with emblems, after the manner of our greatest warriors. In this way I grew up till I had turned the age of eleven, when an end was put to my happiness.”

  More of Equiano’s story will appear later. In the meantime, here is another positive report on another part of Africa, this one by Francis Moore, who worked for the Royal African Company, first as a “writer,” i.e. clerk, then as a factor, or agent. He arrived at the mouth of the Gambia River in November, 1730.

  “As we sailed up that river near the shore, the country appeared very beautiful, being for the most part woody; and between the woods were pleasant green rice grounds, which after the rice is cut are stocked with cattle. On the 11th we landed at James’s Island, which is situated in the middle of the river, that is here at least seven miles broad. This island lies about ten leagues from the river’s mouth, and is about three quarters of a mile in circumference. Upon it is a square stone fort, regularly built, with four bastions, and upon each are seven guns well mounted.

  “There are many different kingdoms on the banks of the Gambia, inhabited by several races of people. The most numerous are called Mundingoes, as is likewise the country they inhabit; these are generally of a black colour, and well set. On the north side of the River Gambia, and from thence inland, are a people called Jollioffs, whose country extends to the River Senegal. These people are much blacker and handsomer than the Mundingoes.

  “In every kingdom and country on each side of the river are people of a tawney colour, called Pholeys, who resemble the Arabs, whose language most of them speak, for it is taught in the schools; and the Koran, which is also their law, is in that language … They live in hordes or clans, build towns, and are not subject to any of the kings of the country, though they live in their territories; for if they are used ill in one nation they break up their towns and move to another. They have chiefs of their own, who rule with such moderation that every act of the government seems rather an act of the people than of one man. This form of government is easily administered because the people are of a good and quiet disposition, and so well instructed in what is just and right that a man who does ill is the abomination of all.

  “The behaviour of the natives to strangers is really not so disagreeable as people are apt to imagine; for when I went through any of their towns they almost all came to shake hands with me, except some of the women, who having never before seen a white man, ran away from me as fast as they could, and would not by any means be persuaded to come near me. Some of the men invited me to their houses, and brought their wives and daughters to see me; who then sat down by me and always found something to wonder at and admire, as my boots, spurs, clothes or wig.

  “Some of the Mundingoes have many slaves in their houses, and in these they pride themselves. They live so well and easily that it is sometimes difficult to know the slaves from the masters and mistresses; they being frequently better clothed, especially the females, who have sometimes coral, amber and silver about their wrists, to the value of twenty or thirty pounds sterling. In almost every town they have a kind of drum of a very large size, called a tangtong, which they only beat at the approach of an enemy, or on some very extraordinary occasion, to call the inhabitants of the neighbouring towns to their assistance; and this in the night-time may be heard six or seven miles.”

  Two years after he arrived, Moore went on an excursion upriver.

  “We left Joar, and proceeded in a sloop up the Gambia. The next day we arrived at Yanimarew, which is the pleasantest port on the whole river, the country being delightfully shaded with palm and palmetto trees. The company here have a small house, with a black factor, to purchase corn for the use of the fort.

  “On my arrival at Nackway the natives welcomed me with the music of the balafeu which, at about one hundred yards distance, sounds something like a small organ. It is composed of about twenty pipes of very hard wood finely polished, which diminish by little and little, both in length and breadth, and are tied together by thongs of very fine leather. These thongs are twisted about small round wands, put between the pipes to keep them at a distance; and underneath the pipes are fastened twelve to fourteen calabashes of different sizes. This instrument they play upon with two sticks, covered with a thin skin taken from the trunk of the palmetto tree, or with fine leather, to make the sound less harsh. Both men and women dance to this music, which they much admire, and are highly delighted to have a white man dance with them.

  “On the 20th of November, in the evening, was a total eclipse of the moon; and the Mundingoes told me the darkness was occasioned by a cat’s putting her paw between the moon and the earth. The Mahometans in this country were singing and dancing the whole time, because they expect their prophet to come in an eclipse.”

  The Anglo-French trader John Barbot was also impressed by the beauty of the country. Here he is on his return from a visit upriver to a local ruler to trade for ivory and rice:

  “It was just after sunset when I parted from king Barsaw, when I paid him the first visit at his village, and a most sweet lovely evening in the month of December. We ran down the river, carried only by the tide, very slowly, between the banks which are magnificently adorned and shaded with evergreen trees of many different sorts and forms, most of which stretch their boughs far out over the river, in the figure of an amphitheater. This, with the profound silence on the water, and the various notes of a multitude of many sorts of birds lodged in the woods, with the shrieking and chattering of a vast number of monkeys and apes skipping and jumping from bough to bough over our heads; and the sweet gentle noise of the Blacks paddling the several canoes which accompanied us, made our journey very delightful and charming.”

  Another place widely praised was Whydah, also known as Fida, a small but thickly settled kingdom between Popo and Ardra on the eastern part of the Guinea coast. According to William Smith, a ship’s officer, “All who have ever been here allow this to be one of the most delightful countries in the world.” Its inhabitants were “the most gentlemanlike Negroes in Guinea, abounding with good manners and ceremony to each other. The inferior pay the utmost deference and respect to the superior, as do wives to their husbands, and children to their parents. All here are naturally industrious, and find constant employment, the men in agriculture and the women in spinning and weaving cotton, of which they make clothes.”

  The main drawback to Whydah was that “this of all other places in Guinea is most difficult to land at.” Because the
water was exceptionally shallow for a long way out, “the sea breaks and rolls at such a vast distance from the shore that no European boat can come within two hundred yards of it, but must come to anchor a good way off and wait for a canoe to come and carry the passengers or goods ashore.” This was accomplished “without any other damage than a little washing. I was amaz’d when we came among the breakers, (which to me seem’d large enough to founder our ship) to see with what wondrous dexterity [the boatmen] carried us through them, and ran their canoe on the top of those rolling waves a good way upon the shore. Which done, they all leap’d out, and dragg’d the canoe up the beach several yards, from the power of the next returning wave.”

  This was the procedure followed by Captain Phillips of the Hannibal who, following the fight with the French ship off Tenerife, arrived at Whydah on the morning of May 21, 1694, dropping anchor “in eight fathom water, about two miles off shore.”

  “May the 21st. This morning I went ashore at Whydah, accompanied by my doctor and purser, Mr. Clay, the present captain of the East-India Merchant, his doctor and purser, and about a dozen of our seamen for our guard, armed, in order here to reside till we could purchase 1300 negro slaves, which was the number we both wanted, to complete 700 for the Hannibal and 600 for the East-India Merchant, according to our agreement in our charter-parties with the Royal African Company; in procuring which quantity of slaves we spent about nine weeks, during which time what observations my indisposition, with convulsions in my head, etc, would permit me to make on this country, its trade, manners, etc, are as follows:

  “Whydah, or Quedaw, lies in the latitude of 6 degrees 10 inches north latitude, being the pleasantest country I have seen in Guinea, consisting of champaigns [open countryside] and small ascending hills, beautified with always green shady groves of lime, wild orange and other trees, and irrigated with divers broad fresh rivers, which yield plenty of good fish. Towards the sea-shore it is very marshy, and has divers large swamps. Our factory [trading station] lies about three miles from the sea-side, where we were carried in hammocks, which the factor, Mr. Joseph Peirson, sent to attend our landing, with several armed blacks that belonged to him for our guard; we were soon trussed in a bag, tossed upon Negroes’ heads, and conveyed to our factory; and this way of traveling being rarely used anywhere except in Africa I think it may not be amiss to give some description of it.